Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering of noisy parallel data

ABSTRACT

Sentence pairs can be filtered using dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering. The filtered sentence pairs can be used to train a model for performing a language processing task, such as machine translation.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The disclosure relates generally to filtering noisy parallel corpora of sentence pairs.

BACKGROUND

A parallel corpus of bilingual data is needed to train machine translation models. Parallel corpora of bilingual data can be noisy, meaning that the two halves of the sentence pair are not exact translations of each other. There is a need to filter noisy parallel corpora of bilingual data.

SUMMARY

One aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a method for filtering noisy parallel data comprising sentence pairs in two languages. In some embodiments, the method comprises: receiving a corpus of sentence pairs, wherein a first half and a second half of each of the corpus of sentence pairs are associated with an identical first label of an identical first language and an identical second label of an identical second language, respectively. The method can comprise: determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using: dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of (i) the first half of the sentence pair, with respect to a plurality of first training sentences, according to a first monolingual language model of the first language and a second monolingual language model of the first language and (ii) the second half of the sentence pair, with respect to a plurality of second training sentences, according to a first monolingual language model of the second language and a second monolingual language model of the second language. The method can comprise: determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using: a first length of the first half of the sentence pair and a second length of the second half of the sentence pair, a first confidence score and a second confidence score that words comprised in the first half and the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, are in the first language and the second language, respectively. The method can comprise: determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using: a first monolingual rank score for the first half of the sentence pair determined using a first ranking of the first half of the sentence pair when selecting the sentence pair to train first language models that model representative first sentences in the first language, and a second monolingual rank score for the second half of the sentence pair determined using a second ranking of the second half of the sentence pair when selecting the sentence pair to train second language models, corresponding to the first language models, that model representative second sentences in the second language. The method can comprise: determining an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair. The method can comprise: selecting a subcorpus of sentence pairs of the corpus of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a predetermined threshold of a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subcorpus of sentence pairs. The method can comprise: performing a language processing task using the subcorpus of sentence pairs selected.

In some embodiments, determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas comprises determining (a) a first delta (or increment) in entropies between (i) the plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the first language. Determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise determining (a) a second delta (or increment) in entropies between (i) the plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the second language.

In some embodiments, determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise approximating the first monolingual language model in the first language (e.g., approximating the first monolingual language model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences, without training the first monolingual language model in the first language model using the plurality of first training sentences). Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise estimating the first delta in entropies using the approximated first monolingual language model in the first language (without training the second language model in the first language). Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise approximating the second monolingual language model in the second language (e.g., approximating the first monolingual language model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences, without training the first monolingual language model in the second language model using the plurality of second training sentences). Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise estimating (b) the second delta in entropies using the approximated first monolingual language model in the second language (without training the second language model in the second language).

In some embodiments, determining (a) the first delta in entropies comprises training the first monolingual language model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences. Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise training the second monolingual model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair. Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise determining (a) the first delta in entropies between a first entropy, with respect to the first language, of (i) a plurality of first testing sentences (e.g., sentences held out for testing) according to the first language model in the first language and a second entropy, with respect to the first language, of (ii) the plurality of first testing sentences according to the second language model in the first language. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise training the first monolingual language model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise training the second monolingual model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise determining (b) the second delta in entropies between a first entropy, with respect to the second language, of (i) a plurality of second testing sentences (e.g., sentences held out for testing) according to the first language model in the second language and a second entropy, with respect to the second language, of (ii) the plurality of second testing sentences according to the second language model in the second language.

In some embodiments, determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas comprises determining a difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies. Determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can include determining a sum between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise a sum of the difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies and the average of (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises: training a machine translation model using the subcorpus of sentence pairs, and wherein performing the language processing task comprises: performing the language processing task using the machine translation model.

Another aspect of the present disclosure is directed to filtering noisy parallel data or corpus comprising sentence pairs in two languages. In some embodiments, the system comprises: one or more processors; and a memory storing instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: receiving a plurality of sentence pairs, wherein a first half and a second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs are associated with an identical first label of an identical first language and an identical second label of an identical second language, respectively. The instructions, when executed by the one or more processors, can cause the system to perform: determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs according to a first monolingual language model of the first language, a second monolingual language model of the first language, a first monolingual language model of the second language, and a second monolingual language model of the second language. The instructions, when executed by the one or more processors, can cause the system to perform: determining an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair. The instructions, when executed by the one or more processors, can cause the system to perform: selecting a subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs.

In some embodiments, determining the plurality of feature scores comprises: determining a dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of the sentence pair according to the first monolingual language model of the first language, the second monolingual language model of the first language, the first monolingual language model of the second language, and the second monolingual language model of the second language. The dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs can comprise the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas exponentiated. The memory further stores instructions, that when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs according to the first monolingual language model of the first language and the first monolingual language model of the second language, respectively. The first monolingual language model in the first language can be trained or approximated using a plurality of first training sentences in the first language, and the first monolingual language model in the second language can be trained or approximated using a plurality of second training sentences in the second language. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can be related to a first informativeness of the first half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model in the first language and a second informativeness of the second half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual model in the second language.

In some embodiments, determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can comprise: determining (a) a first delta (or incremental difference) in entropies between (i) a plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the first language (e.g., trained, or approximated, using the plurality of first training sentences). Determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can comprise: determining (b) a second delta (or incremental difference) in entropies between (i) a plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the second language (e.g., trained, or approximately using the plurality of second training sentences). The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise a sum of the difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies, and the average of (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies.

In some embodiments, determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise approximating the first monolingual language model in the first language (e.g., approximating the first monolingual language model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences, without training the first monolingual language model in the first language model using the plurality of first training sentences). Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise estimating the first delta in entropies using the approximated first monolingual language model in the first language (without training the second language model in the first language). Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise approximating the second monolingual language model in the second language (e.g., approximating the first monolingual language model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences, without training the first monolingual language model in the second language model using the plurality of second training sentences). Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise estimating (b) the second delta in entropies using the approximated first monolingual language model in the second language (without training the second language model in the second language).

In some embodiments, determining (a) the first delta in entropies comprises training the first monolingual language model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences. Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise training the second monolingual model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair. Determining (a) the first delta in entropies can comprise determining (a) the first delta in entropies between a first entropy, with respect to the first language, of (i) a plurality of first testing sentences (e.g., sentences held out for testing) according to the first language model in the first language and a second entropy, with respect to the first language, of (ii) the plurality of first testing sentences according to the second language model in the first language. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise training the first monolingual language model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise training the second monolingual model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair. Determining (b) the second delta in entropies can comprise determining (b) the second delta in entropies between a first entropy, with respect to the second language, of (i) a plurality of second testing sentences (e.g., sentences held out for testing) according to the first language model in the second language and a second entropy, with respect to the second language, of (ii) the plurality of second testing sentences according to the second language model in the second language.

In some embodiments, determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas comprises determining a difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies. Determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can include determining a sum between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise a sum of the difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies and the average of (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies.

In some embodiments, one half of a parallel corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, and the other half of the parallel corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences. In some embodiments, a first monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, and a second monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences. The first monolingual corpus and the second monolingual corpus can comprise comparable amount of information. The plurality of first training sentences and the plurality of second training sentences can comprise comparable amount of information.

In some embodiments, determining the plurality of feature scores comprises: determining a feature score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using a first perplexity or likelihood of the first half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model of the first language and a second perplexity or likelihood of the second half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model of the second language.

In some embodiments, the memory further stores instructions, that when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: training the first monolingual language model in the first language using a plurality of first training sentences (different from the plurality of sentences pairs) in the first language; and/or training the first monolingual language model in the second language using a plurality of second training sentences (different from the plurality of sentence pairs) in the second language. An amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the first language and an amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the second language can be similar. A number of different words comprised in all first training sentences of the plurality of first training sentences in the first language and a number of different words comprised in all second training sentences of the plurality of second training sentences in the second language can be similar. A perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the first language with respect to a plurality of first test sentences in the first language and a perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the second language with respect to a plurality of second test sentences in the second language and parallel to the plurality of first test sentences can be similar. The plurality of first training sentences and the plurality of first test sentences can be different. The plurality of second training sentences and the plurality of second test sentences can be different. The plurality of first training sentences can be used to train the first monolingual language model in the first language. The plurality of first test sentences can be used to determine a performance (e.g., perplexity) of the first monolingual language model in the first language. The plurality of second test sentences can be used to determine a performance (e.g., perplexity) of the first monolingual language model in the second language. The plurality of first test sentences and the plurality of second test sentences can be parallel sentences (e.g., of a parallel corpus of the first language and the second language).

In some embodiments, determining the plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises: determining a length score using a ratio of a first length of the first half of the sentence pair and a second length of the second half of the sentence pair; determining a language identification score using a first confidence score and a second confidence score that words comprised in the first half and the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, are in the first language and the second language, respectively; and/or determining a rank score comprising a product of a first monolingual rank score and a second monolingual rank score for the first half and the second half, respectively, of the sentence pair determined using a first ranking of the first half of the sentence pair and a second ranking of the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, when selecting the first half and the second half of the sentence pair to train first language models and second language models, respectively, that model representative first sentences in the first language and second sentences in the second language, respectively.

In some embodiments, the overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises a product of all feature scores of the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair.

In some embodiments, selecting the subset of sentence pairs comprises: selecting the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a first predetermined threshold of a number of words comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. The first predetermined threshold can comprise a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. Selecting the subset of sentence pairs can comprise: selecting the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs, the first predetermined threshold of the number of different words comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs, and a second predetermined threshold of a number of different words comprised in the second halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. In some embodiments, selecting the subset of sentence pairs comprises: selecting the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a first predetermined threshold of the overall score.

In some embodiments, the memory further stores instructions, that when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: performing a language processing task using the subset of sentence pairs selected.

These and other features of the systems, methods, and non-transitory computer readable media disclosed herein, as well as the methods of operation and functions of the related elements of structure and the combination of parts and economies of manufacture, will become more apparent upon consideration of the following description and the appended claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part of this specification, wherein like reference numerals designate corresponding parts in the various figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that the drawings are for purposes of illustration and description only and are not intended as a definition of the limits of the invention. It is to be understood that the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only, and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Preferred and non-limiting embodiments of the invention may be more readily understood by referring to the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates an example environment of a noisy parallel corpus filtering system, in accordance with various embodiments of the disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a flowchart of an example method for noisy parallel corpus filtering, in accordance with various embodiments of the disclosure.

FIG. 3 illustrates an example environment for a ridesharing platform system, in accordance with various embodiments of the disclosure.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an example computer system in which any of the embodiments described herein may be implemented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

Specific, non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will now be described with reference to the drawings. It should be understood that particular features and aspects of any embodiment disclosed herein may be used and/or combined with particular features and aspects of any other embodiment disclosed herein. It should also be understood that such embodiments are by way of example and are merely illustrative of a small number of embodiments within the scope of the present invention. Various changes and modifications obvious to one skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and contemplation of the present invention as further defined in the appended claims.

Noisy Parallel Data Filtering

Disclosed herein include embodiments of a monolingual approach of filtering for parallel data from a noisy corpus in a low-resource scenario. The method can be used to filter a noisy corpus when no clean parallel data is available. The method can be based on a dual monolingual cross-entropy delta criterion. As seen below, the method can be competitive (e.g., within 1.8 bilingual evaluation understudy (BLEU)) with the best bilingual filtering method when used to train statistical machine translation (SMT) systems. The method can be featherweight and can be implemented end-to-end on a computing device (e.g., a standard laptop, a personal desktop computer, etc.) in a few hours (e.g., three hours).

Dual Conditional Cross-Entropy Filtering

In some embodiments, a shared task on parallel corpus filtering can require selecting subcorpora of 10M and 100M words from an extremely noisy 1B word language 1-language 2 (L1-L2) parallel corpus from a crawler (e.g., Paracrawl). For example, the two languages can be German and English. These subcorpora can then be used to train machine translation (MT) systems, and evaluated on held-out test sets. In some embodiments, filtering of noisy parallel data can be based on dual conditional cross-entropy and can comprise:

1. A filter based on language identification (ID)

2. A dual conditional cross-entropy filter to determine whether the halves of a sentence pair were of roughly equal translation probability

3. A cross-entropy difference filter to prioritize in-domain sentence pairs

Language ID Filter Feature

The first feature can use the langid Python module to classify the language of each half of each sentence pair to a language. Any sentence pair where either half is classified as being in an incorrect language can be removed. Sentence pairs with correctly-classified halves can be kept.

Dual Conditional Cross-Entropy Feature

The dual conditional cross-entropy filtering method can reward sentence pairs with minimal symmetric translation disagreement. That can be the difference in average (e.g., per-word) conditional cross-entropy of the sentence pair halves as shown below. |H _(L1→L2)(s _(L2) |s _(L1))−H _(L2→L1)(s _(L1) |s _(L2))|

For a sentence pair (s_(L2), s_(L1)), the per-word conditional cross-entropy H_(L1→L2)(s_(L2)|s_(L1)) of one half of the sentence pair can be determined by using a translation model L1→L2 (translating a language L1 to a language L2) and the corresponding H_(L2→L1)(s_(L1)|s_(L2)) of the other half of the sentence pair can be determined using a translation model in the opposite direction (translating a language L2 to a language L1). The two translation models (TMs) can be trained in inverse directions using the same parallel corpus, so the two translation models may be equally expressive.

However, the difference in translation scores does not take into account whether the scores are good or not. A perfectly translated sentence pair where the translation models agree perfectly may have the same score as a poorly translated sentence pair where the translation models also agree. This same weakness may be found in the cross-entropy difference features (described below) on which the conditional cross-entropy difference is based. To force the better sentence pair to have a lower feature score than the other one or more pairs, a term including the average per-word conditional cross-entropy of the two halves can be added. Worse sentences have higher entropy, so lower entropy indicate better sentences (e.g., a score of zero can be ideal). The equation for the dual conditional cross-entropy can be as shown in Equation (1.1) below. h(s _(L2) ,s _(L1))=|H _(L1→L2)(s _(L2) |s _(L1))−H _(L2→L1)(s _(L1) |s _(L2))|+½(H _(L1→L2)(s _(L2) |s _(L1))+H _(L2→L1)(s _(L1) |s _(L2)))  (1.1)

The first term in Equation (1.1) is the translation disagreement, and the second term is the average entropy. The score is exponentiated so that good sentence pairs have a feature score of 1, and bad sentence pairs have a score of zero, as shown in Equation (1.2) below. f(s _(L2) ,s _(L2))=e ^(−h(s) ^(L2) ^(,s) ^(L1) ⁾  (1.2)

The cross-entropy difference method can be used for language modeling. The cross-entropy difference method can be repurposed for machine translation.

Cross-Entropy Difference Feature

A third feature is a monolingual (e.g., English, German, or any other language) cross-entropy difference score shown in Equation (2). H _(in)(s _(L2))−H _(out)(s _(L2))  (2)

The cross-entropies H can be determined using language models trained on some sentences (e.g., 1M sentences of news data) as in-domain data and some sentences (e.g., 1M random sentences obtained by Paracrawl) as out-of-domain data. In some embodiments, Equation (2) can be a good setup (e.g., an ideal setup) for cross-entropy difference, as Equation (2) fundamentally assumes that the two corpora are as different as possible.

Cynical Data Selection

Both the relaxation of the dual conditional cross-entropy filter and replacement of the cross-entropy difference filter can be based on cynical data selection, described below. The cross-entropy difference approach described above fundamentally views the training data as being either in-domain or out/general-domain. In some embodiments, this stark distinction may not be realistic. Cynical data selection relaxes that assumption (e.g., the two corpora may be as different as possible) and starts with one corpus of representative data (REPR), and one corpus of available data (AVAIL). The representative data can be representative of what a machine translation model be used for translating. The available data can be the data pool from which a subcorpus of data can be selected. No relationship needs be assumed between the representative and available corpora, nor between the domains they cover.

The cynical data selection method can incrementally grow a corpus of sentences, selecting from AVAIL, in order to better model REPR. First, the perplexity (or entropy) of a language model (LM) trained on the already-selected data and evaluated on the REPR corpus can be estimated. Next, for each sentence still available in the data pool, the change in the perplexity (or entropy), denoted by ΔH, that would result from adding the sentence as a new sentence to the LM training data and re-training the LM using the LM training data with the new sentence can be estimated. The sentence with the lowest cross-entropy delta can be removed from AVAIL, and added to the selected pile. The process can then repeat. The computational cost for identifying the next single sentence to add can be O(n²). Identifying each next single sentence to add may not be computationally practical. Finding the best word v in the vocabulary V_(REPR) to add once to the selected data can be efficient. For example, as described below, the best word v may be the one that most lowers the entropy of a language model. From there, picking the best sentence still in AVAIL that contains that word v can be practical. The n+1^(th) iteration, after selecting n sentences, is:

1. Find the single word v∈V_(REPR) that would most lower the entropy (evaluated on REPR) of a language model. The language model can be trained using the n already-selected sentences and the one-word sentence “v”.

2. Find a single sentence s∈AVAIL containing v that would (also) most lower the entropy (evaluated on REPR) of a language model trained using the n already-selected sentences and the sentence s.

3. Remove s from AVAIL, update the language model with the count c of all words in s, and add s to the n already-selected sentences.

The cross-entropy delta ΔH can refer to a change in the entropy of a language model, evaluated on a constant test set, and caused by adding a new entry (e.g., a new line, a new sentence, a new word, etc.) to the language model's training corpus. there may be an entropic length penalty for increasing the size of the training corpus, and an entropy gain for adding new information to the training corpus. A “relative entropy” can be formulated as shown in Equation (3) below.

$\begin{matrix} {\mspace{20mu}{{{\Delta H_{n\rightarrow{n + 1}}} = {{\Delta H_{n + 1}} - {\Delta H_{n}}}}{{\Delta H_{n\rightarrow{n + 1}}} = {\underset{\underset{Penalty}{︸}}{\log\frac{W_{n} + w_{n + 1}}{W_{n}}} + \underset{\underset{Gain}{︸}}{\sum_{v \in V_{REPR}}{\frac{C_{REPR}(v)}{W_{REPR}}\log\frac{C_{n}(v)}{{C_{n}(v)} + {c_{n + 1}(v)}}}}}}}} & (3) \end{matrix}$

The penalty term depends on the length w_(n+1) of the n+1^(th) sentence, and the size in words W_(n) of the already-selected data. The gain term depends on the empirical probability of each word v in the REPR corpus, and then the count C_(n) of the word so far in the n selected sentences, and the count c_(n+1) of the word in the n+1^(th) sentence.

Sinhala-English Data

A shared task can focus exclusively on filtering a noisy parallel corpus for low-resource language pairs with considerably less data. For example, Table 1 shows that 645k lines (which can be sentences) of parallel Sinhala-English (Si-En) were provided in total—less than the small 1M German-English sentence pair subsets, filtered with the dual conditional cross-entropy filtering method, used to train the dual neural machine translation (NMT) engines for a scoring function.

TABLE 1 Parallel Data for Sinhala-English Corpus Lines Token (Si) Token (En) Open Subtitles 601,164 3.4M 3.6M Ubuntu 45,617 175k 151k Total 646,781 3.5M 3.7M

The Si-En parallel data was drawn from conversations and technical manuals, unlike the Wiki-based evaluation data. Larger and more relevant, yet monolingual, corpora were provided from both Wikipedia and Common Crawl, detailed in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Corpus statistics for provided monolingual data in Sinhala and English, and an English subset of comparable size to the Sinhala data. Corpus Lines Tokens Sinhala Wikipedia 156k  4.7M English Wikipedia 67.8M  1.9B Sinhala Common Crawl  5.2M 110M English Common Crawl 380M 8.9B English Subset Wikipedia 150k  5.5M English Subset Common Crawl  6M 123M

The provided monolingual English data was several orders of magnitude larger than the Sinhala data, which would have made it difficult to create data, which would have made it difficult to create equally strong (or weak) monolingual models used in this work. A monolingual English corpus comparable in size and content to the Sinhala one was assembled by randomly selecting 150k lines from Wikipedia and 6M lines from Common Crawl. SentencePiece, with model_type=word, was used to preprocess the Sinhala and English sides separately, producing a fairly word-like vocabulary of 100k subwords for each language. Each SentencePiece model was trained on 1M lines of monolingual data: 150k Wiki+850k Common Crawl.

Dual Monolingual Cross-Entropy-Delta Filtering

In some embodiments, a shared task on parallel corpus filtering can be set for low-resource conditions, with the goal of translating texts in two languages (e.g., translating Wikipedia texts from Sinhala to English, from Nepali to English, etc.).

Filtering noisy parallel data can be based on dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta. In some embodiments, filtering noisy parallel data can be based on dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas. In some embodiments, filtering noisy parallel data can be based on a language ID filter feature, cross-entropy difference feature, and a length-based feature. In some embodiments, filtering noisy parallel data can be based on a cynical data selection ranking/score feature. The resulting filtered parallel data, filtered using an entirely monolingual pipeline, can be used to train machine translation systems and can be competitive with the other multilingual systems and methods when used to train downstream SMT systems.

For each sentence pair (s_(L1), s_(L2)) (e.g., L1 is Sinhala, and L2 is English) in the noisy corpus, a final score was computed f(s _(L1) ,s _(L2))∈[0,1] by multiplying each of the individual feature scores for the sentence pair, as shown in Equation (4). f(s _(L1) ,s _(L2))=Π_(i) f _(i)(s _(L1) ,s _(L2))  (4)

The feature scores, and therefore the final score, all had the same range of [0, 1]. For evaluation, the lines were sorted from highest to lowest overall score, and then selected in that order until the number of selected English words reached the evaluation threshold. Any feature score being zero effectively removes that sentence pair from consideration. The selected subsets may then be submitted for evaluation by the task organizers. The following are the monolingual features used to score the noisy parallel data.

Length Ratio Feature

A length ratio feature based on the length ratio of the two halves of the sentence pair was used. The length ratio feature penalizes sentence pairs with sides of disparate lengths (relative to a desired ratio, such as 0.5, 0.8, 1, 1.2, or 1.5). In some embodiments, the desired ratio can be empirically determined. In some embodiments, a sentence pair with a length difference more than 20% can be discarded. In some embodiments, a sentence pair with a length ratio that is more than 20% (or 30%, 50%, or more) different from a desired ratio can be discarded.

The provided clean, parallel, training data in Table 1 is inconclusive regarding the expected Si-to-En length ratio, as one of the parallel corpora had more English tokens than Sinhala, and the other had the reverse. The ratios were approximately inverses. In this example, the desired ratio was set to be 1 and sentence pair scores were penalized according to how divergent the parallel segment's length ratio was from 1. A sentence pair with a length ratio within two orders of magnitude,

${{i.e.\mspace{14mu} e^{- 2}} < \frac{L1}{L2} < e^{2}},{{{or}\mspace{14mu}{{\ln\left( \frac{L1}{L2} \right)}}} < 2},$ received a feature score of 1, or no penalty. The feature score was set to

${{0.5\mspace{14mu}{if}\mspace{14mu} 2} < {{\ln\left( \frac{L\; 1}{L\; 2} \right)}} < {3.\mspace{14mu}{For}\mspace{14mu} 3} < {{\ln\left( \frac{L\; 1}{L\; 2} \right)}}},$ the feature was set to 0.35. For pairs where both segments contained fewer than six tokens, less strict penalties were applied as ratios were more likely to vary with shorter segment lengths. For such pairs, a score of 0.5 was assigned if the ratio was greater than 4 orders of magnitude, 0.75 if between 3 and 4, and 0.9 if within 2-3 factors. Large numbers of non-parallel Paracrawl sentence pairs contained mostly numbers on one side were observed. Any sentence pair where at least 15% of either half was numerals received a score of 0. Language ID Feature

A considerable quantity of the provided Paracrawl data was not in the correct language. The halves of the sentence pair were classified using the langid Python module and assigned zero to any sentence pair with an incorrectly-labeled half. If the correct languages were selected, then the feature value was the product of the langid confidence scores. Inspecting the filter output showed that the product of the langid confidence socres was not strong enough. The langid classification had many false positives, as well as source-side (Sinhala) sentences that were mixed with a significant amount of English. The shared task's hard limit on the number of selectable words made minimizing the amount of English on the Sinhala side important. The languages have non-overlapping writing scripts, so erroneous characters can be detected. The langid score can be multiplied by the proportion of characters (excluding numerals and punctuation) in each sentence that belong to the correct Unicode block, resulting in an overall language ID feature that slightly extends the original.

Dual Monolingual Cross-Entropy-Delta Feature

For the prior dual conditional cross-entropy filtering method, MT systems were trained on clean parallel data for the task, but used the translation probability of each to score the Paracrawl data and not the translation output itself. The motivation for training the dual NMT systems on the same parallel corpus was to ensure that the models may have similar BLEU scores and translation probabilities for the halves of a truly parallel sentence pair.

Enough good parallel data for Sinhala and English was not available, which ruled out training models on identical information. However, perhaps the translation models themselves were not inherently necessary as long as similar scores could be obtained. Language models require less training data than an MT engine to be reliable, and can also output an average per-word probability for a sentence and good monolingual data was provided. Language models with similar amounts of information were constructed in the hope that the language models might have similar perplexities for the halves of a parallel sentence pair, and different perplexities for a non-parallel pair. The result was a relaxation of the dual conditional translation cross-entropy feature that required monolingual data, and used equal relative informativeness instead of equal translation probability.

Dual Monolingual Cross-Entropy-Delta Feature—Setting Up Language Models

Language models in different languages may not be comparable. Differences in morphology can lead to significant differences in word counts, data sparsity, and thus how well a fixed model architecture can represent the language. Instead of multilingual word embeddings using sparse data, SentencePiece (SP) was used to force the Sinhala and English corpora to have the same size vocabulary (100k subwords). First, a standard lexicon size may mitigate the effect of morphology differences affecting sentence length and word sparsity. Secondly, a standard lexicon size may encourage language models trained on similar—but not parallel—English and Sinhala texts to have similar perplexities over each half of a parallel test set.

This may mean the two LMs had similar estimates of how much information is in each half of the parallel data. The two halves of the parallel corpus presumably contain the same amount of actual information, but two LMs may come up with the same estimate if they themselves contained comparable amounts of information, even if they did not the same information.

To test this, 4-gram language models were trained using KenLM on the Sinhala monolingual data and the restricted-size English data in Table 2, both unprocessed and after tokenizing with SentencePiece. The models were evaluated on the provided parallel valid and test sets. Table 3 shows that, indeed, forcing English and Sinhala LMs to have identical vocabulary sizes was enough to obtain nearly identical perplexities on the halves of a parallel corpus, even though the language models were trained on similar but not parallel data.

TABLE 3 Using SentencePiece to equalize LM perplexities in different languages on the dev sets. Corpus valid test Sinhala, untokenized 1,759.8 1,565.9 English, untokenized 1,069.2 985.3 Sinhala, token = SP 320.5 299.2 English, token = SP 302.5 292.7 Dual Monolingual Cross-Entropy-Delta Feature—Parallel Scoring with Monolingual LMs

The “greedy cross-entropy delta” term from cynical data selection can be advantageously used to score each side of the Paracrawl data as a memoryless stream of text. In this setup, a language model trained using monolingual Wikipedia data, which is the REPR corpus and is representative of the kind of data the language model will evaluate on. The ΔH of adding each sentence s in Paracrawl to the REPR corpus was computed, a LM on REPR+s was retrained, and the perplexity on REPR corpus was recomputed. After computing all of the ΔH scores for the Paracrawl data, cynical data selection would normally extract the best sentence (e.g., the sentence with the smallest ΔH), incorporate the best sentence into the training set, and iterate. Instead, an implementation of cynical data selection was modified to not update anything, and the scoring was done in a single pass or iteration.

The difference between a LM perplexity and the ΔH score is that the LM quantifies the likelihood, and the ΔH score quantifies informativeness. The ΔH score estimates, for a fixed REPR corpus: does this next line contain any information at all about REPR not already know? A negative score would indicate an estimated decrease in entropy, so adding this line should improve a model trained on the selected data. In some embodiments, the difference in relative information deltas can be minimized. Sentences with identical information gain, regardless of the probability, can be preferred. In some embodiments, the probability difference can be explicitly minimized. Sentences with identical probability regardless of the information gain can be preferred. Minimizing the probability difference may be more broadly applicable as the dataset representative of the kind of data to be extracted may not be needed.

Monolingual Sinhala and English LMs were constructed with similar perplexities on a parallel test set that resembled the task evaluation, so sentences with equal ΔH scores according to these two models may be parallel. Or, at least, that sentences with disparate ΔH scores may be deemed not-parallel, and filtered out.

The translation system conditional cross-entropies in Equation (1.1) can be replaced with the cross-entropies from the two comparable language models disclosed herein (See Equation (5) for an example). Cross-entropies of two halves of a sentence pair determined using the two comparable language models may only characterize the fluency of the two halves, without any sense of the content of the two halves. Whether identical perplexities or identical ΔH scores is a better indicator of “these sentences are parallel” is unclear. Being equally likely and being equally informative are each positive indicators. The goal of the shared task was to assemble the parallel corpus that produced the best downstream MT system for Wikipedia test; prioritizing informative sentences may be more important than prioritizing likely ones. Equation (1.1) was modified with Equation (3)'s ΔH scores, dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas, for each sentence pair (s_(L1), s_(L2)), instead of dual bilingual conditional cross-entropies, as shown in Equation (5) below. |ΔH _(L2)(s _(L2)|REPR_(L2))−ΔH _(L1)(s _(L1)|REPR_(L1))|+½(ΔH _(L2)(s _(L2)|REPR_(L2))+ΔH _(L1)(s _(L1)|REPR_(L1)))  (5) This was exponentiated to be in the range of [0, 1]. Compared to the translation system conditional cross-entropies described with reference to Equation (1.1), the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering described with reference to Equation (5) involves one fewer set of approximations. Advantageously, the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can be simpler and less computing resource intensive. ΔH_(L1)(s_(L1)|REPR_(L1)) can be the difference in entropy between a first language model in the first language L1 trained using REPR_(L1) (e.g., a plurality of first training sentences) and a second language model in the first language L1 trained using REPR_(L1)+s_(L1) (e.g., a plurality of first training sentences and a first half of a sentence pair). ΔH_(L2)(s_(L2)|REPR_(L2)) can be the difference in entropy between a first language model in the second language L2 trained using REPR_(L2) (e.g., a plurality of second training sentences) and a second language model in the second language L2 trained using REPR_(L2)+s_(L2) (e.g., a plurality of second training sentences and a second half of a sentence pair). The cross-entropy deltas can include the entropy of REPR_(L1)+s_(L1), relative to the entropy of REPR_(L1), according to a monolingual model in the first language L1. The cross-entropy deltas can include the entropy of REPR_(L2)+s_(L2), relative to the entropy of REPR_(L2), according to a monolingual model in the second language L2. Cynical Data Selection Ranking/Score Feature

The monolingual cross-entropy difference feature score can be used to bias the filtering towards in-domain news data. The cross-entropy difference feature has no sense of sufficiency: while seeing an identical sentence pair 10,000 times may not be helpful, the cross-entropy difference criterion assigns the same score to all copies. Cynical data selection selects sentences only if they contribute new information to the set of sentences already selected, and has previously been shown to help domain adaptation in SMT and NMT, and a variation can be used for corpus filtering task. As a side effect, cynical selection eliminates the need for explicit vocabulary coverage features that can be used for a shared task.

For each language, cynical data selection was used to rank the sentences in the noisy corpus. The Paracrawl data was set to be the Available set, and the clean monolingual Wikipedia data was set to be the Representative set. The subset of Paracrawl that best models monolingual Wikipedia was thus selected. The re-ranked Paracrawl corpus was then scored by converting the cynical data selection ranking to a percentage and subtracted from 1. Thus the sentence selected as number 15,000 out of 3M would have a score of (1-15,000/3,000,000), and 1 would be the best score and zero the worse. The ranking score for a sentence pair was the product of the monolingual rank scores for the halves.

Results and Discussion

Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can be purely monolingual. Parallel data can be used to sanity-check the language models trained in the Dual Monolingual Cross-Entropy-Delta-Setting Up Language Models section. Furthermore, all of the preprocessing, language modeling, data selection, and feature computation can require minimal computer resources (e.g., relative to bilingual or multilingual methods trained for days on GPU machines). For example, all of the preprocessing, language modeling, data selection, and feature computation can be run on a laptop.

Results were predicted using NMT systems. The BLEU scores of embodiments of the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering method were under 0.20 and worse than a random baseline. While the evaluation campaign cutoff was set to be 1M or 5M English words, the Sinhala sides of the filtered corpus contained 740k and 3.6M words respectively. The length ratio feature was overly complicated and not aggressive enough; the Si→En NMT systems tended to stutter to produce English sentences of appropriate length.

Table 4 shows the top and bottom scores for each evaluation category, providing context for the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering. Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering the bottom third of the SMT systems, yet within 1.8 BLEU of the best system at 1M, and 1.3 BLEU of the best system at 5M. This is rather competitive for a monolingual approach to a bilingual task!

The submitted system, like roughly 30% of the submissions, was not suitable for filtering data in the organizers' low-resource NMT pipeline. However, the NMT systems trained on 1M words were several BLEU points better than systems trained on 5M words, so training an NMT system on small amounts of data is unpredictable, and this method may work well in other instantiations.

TABLE 4 Bleu scores on test for systems trained on subsets with 1M and 5M English words of the noisy Paracrawl data. 1M 1M 5M 5M System SMT NMT SMT NMT Rank 1 4.27 6.39 4.94 4.44 Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta 2.53 0.19 3.70 0.20 filtering Rank 10 0.92 0.03 2.73 0.10

Some embodiments of the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can be based on cynical data selection and used for filtering noisy parallel data. A filtering method based on dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can be considered a relaxation of dual conditional cross-entropy filtering and may not require any parallel data. A filtering method based on dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can use cynical data selection in a streaming scenario. Filtering based on dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can use relative informativeness to judge the relationship between the halves of a sentence pair. In some embodiments, dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can be competitive in terms of performance. In some embodiments, dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta can be suitable for scenarios with little or no parallel data. Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can be relatively undemanding of computational resources, as can be run end-to-end on a single laptop in a couple hours. Dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering can integrate well into a feature ensemble for real-world deployment.

Environment of a Noisy Parallel Corpus Filtering System

FIG. 1 illustrates an example environment 100 for a noisy parallel corpus filtering system, in accordance with various embodiments. The example environment 100 may include a computing system 102. The computing system 102 may include one or more processors and memory (e.g., permanent memory, temporary memory). The processor(s) may be configured to perform various operations by interpreting machine-readable instructions stored in the memory. The computing system 102 may include other computing resources. The computing system 102 may have access (e.g., via one or more connections, via one or more networks) to other computing resources.

The computing system 102 may include a web crawler component 112, a dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering component 114, a language processing task model training component 116, and a language processing task component 118. The computing system 102 may include other components. While the computing system 102 is shown in FIG. 1 as a single entity, this is merely for ease of reference and is not meant to be limiting. One or more components or one or more functionalities of the computing system 102 described herein may be implemented in software. One or more components or one or more functionalities of the computing system 102 described herein may be implemented in hardware. One or more components or one or more functionalities of the computing system 102 described herein may be implemented in a single computing device or multiple computing devices. In some embodiments, one or more components or one or more functionalities of the computing system 102 described herein may be implemented in one or more networks (e.g., enterprise networks), one or more endpoints, one or more servers, or one or more clouds.

The web crawler component 112 can crawl the Internet to generate noisy parallel corpus of sentence pairs in two languages (e.g., L1 and L2). The web crawler component 112 can implement Paracrawl in some embodiments. The dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering component 114 can filter noisy parallel corpus generated by the web crawler component 112 to generate filtered parallel corpus that is less noisy or is clean for training a model for a language processing task. The language processing task model training component 116 can use the filtered parallel corpus generated by the dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering component 114 to train a model (e.g., a language processing model, such as a machine translation model) for performing a language processing task (e.g., a translation task from one language to another). The language processing task component 118 can perform a language processing task using the model trained by the language processing task model training component 116. The noisy parallel corpus of sentence pairs or the filtered corpus of sentence pairs can be stored in a database 120. The language processing task model trained can be stored in the database 120.

Noisy Parallel Data Filtering Method

Disclosed herein are embodiments of a noisy parallel data filtering method. In some embodiments, the method comprises receiving a language processing model trained using a subset of sentence pairs of a plurality of sentence pairs. A first half and a second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can be associated with an identical first label of an identical first language and an identical second label of an identical second language, respectively. The first half of a sentence pair can be associated with the first label even if the first half of the sentence pair may include one or more words in the second language. The second half of a sentence pair can be associated with the second label even if the second half of the sentence pair may include one or more words in the first language. For example, there may be English data in the Sinhala side and vice versa. Each of the subset of sentence pairs can be selected using a feature score for the sentence pair determined using a first monolingual language model of the first language and a first monolingual language model of the second language. The method can comprise: performing a language processing task using the language processing model.

FIG. 2 illustrates a flowchart of an example method 200, according to various embodiments of the present disclosure. The method 200 may be implemented in various environments including, for example, the environment 100 of FIG. 1 and by computer systems, such as the computer system 102 of FIG. 1, or the computer system 400 of FIG. 4. The operations of the method 200 presented below are intended to be illustrative. Depending on the implementation, the method 200 may include additional, fewer, or alternative steps performed in various orders or in parallel. The method 200 may be implemented in various computing systems or devices including one or more processors.

With respect to the method 200, at block 204, a computer system (such as the computer system 102 of FIG. 1, or the computer system 400 of FIG. 4) can receive a plurality or a corpus of sentence pairs. A first half and a second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can be associated with an identical first label of an identical first language and an identical second label of an identical second language, respectively. The corpus of sentence pairs can be noisy.

With respect to the method 200, at block 208, the computer system can determine a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs according to a first monolingual language model of the first language, a second monolingual language model of the first language, a first monolingual language model of the second language, and a second monolingual language model of the second language. The computer system can determine a dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta score (also referred to as a dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas score) for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of the sentence pair. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of the sentence pair can be determined according to the first monolingual language model of the first language, a second monolingual language model of the first language, the first monolingual language model of the second language, and a second monolingual language model of the second language.

The deltas are (e.g., as described with reference to cynical data selection), the difference in entropy of a held-out or testing set, using two language models in each language: one trained on the data so far (e.g., REPR), and the other trained on the data so far plus one sentence. (e.g., REPR+s). In practice, these deltas can be computed via the cynical data selection toolkit, which is more efficient because the cynical data selection approximates the deltas without specifically training the LMs for each single sentence. This suffices because the models are not needed. Rather the scores from the models would if the models are trained are needed.

The cross-entropy delta for a sentence half can be defined by two language models, one trained using the data so far and one trained using the data so far plus one sentence. The cross-entropy delta is defined as (i.e., is equivalent to) the difference in entropy of a held-out or testing set, using two language models: one trained on the data so far, and the other trained on the data so far plus one sentence. In practice, no language models may be trained. Rather, the computer system can approximate the first language model (e.g., of the first language) can be approximated (e.g., in the computer's memory), and then estimates what the delta would be if the computer system built the second one and subtracted the entropies.

Each entropy can be of the particular language model on the appropriate half of an actual parallel corpus (which is distinct from the noisy parallel corpus being filtered). Each entropy can be of the particular language model on a monolingual corpus (in the appropriate language) for which there exists a monolingual corpus (in the other language) that contains a comparable amount of information. This information would be determined by the entropy of the monolingual corpus according to a language model trained on that same monolingual corpus.

In some embodiments, the computer system can determine a first delta (or difference or increment) in entropies between (i) a plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the first language. The first monolingual language model in the first language can be trained (or approximated) using the plurality of first training sentences. The computer system can determine a second delta (or difference or increment) in entropies between (i) a plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the second language. The first monolingual model in the second language can be trained (or approximated) using the plurality of second training sentences.

In some embodiments, the computer system can determine a first delta (or difference or increment) in entropies between (i) a plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the first language and the second monolingual language model in the first language, respectively. The first monolingual language model in the first language can be trained using the plurality of first training sentences. The first monolingual language model in the first language can be trained using the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair. The computer system can determine a second delta (or difference or increment) in entropies between (i) a plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the second language and the second monolingual language model in the second language, respectively. The first monolingual model in the second language can be trained using the plurality of second training sentences. The second monolingual language model in the second language can be trained using the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair.

The computer system can determine a dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas as described with reference to Equation (5). The dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs can comprise the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas exponentiated. For example, the dual monolingual cross-entropy delta score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs can comprise the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas exponentiated as described with reference to Equation (1.2) The computer system can determine the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs with respect to the first monolingual language model of the first language and the first monolingual language model of the second language, respectively.

The first monolingual language model in the first language can be trained using a plurality of first training sentences in the first language (e.g., REPR_(L2)). The first monolingual language model in the second language can be trained using a plurality of second training sentences in the second language (e.g., REPR_(L2)). In some embodiments, one half of a parallel corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, and the other half of the parallel corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences. In some embodiments, a first monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, and a second monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences. The first monolingual corpus and the second monolingual corpus can comprise comparable amount of information. The plurality of first training sentences and the plurality of second training sentences can comprise comparable amount of information.

The computer system can determine a feature score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using a first perplexity of the first half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model of the first language and a second perplexity of the second half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model of the second language.

The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of each of the plurality of sentence pairs can be related to a first informativeness of the first half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model in the first language and a second informativeness of the second half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual model in the second language. The computer system can determine a difference between (a) the first delta in entropies between (i) the plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the first language, and (b) the second delta in entropies between (i) the plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, according the first monolingual language model in the second language. The computer system can determine a sum between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise a sum of the difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies and the average of (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies.

The computer system can train the first monolingual language model in the first language using a plurality of first training sentences in the first language. The computer system can train the first monolingual language model in the second language using a plurality of second training sentences in the second language. An amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the first language and an amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the second language can be similar (e.g., identical or within a predetermined threshold difference). A number of different words comprised in all first training sentences of the plurality of first training sentences in the first language and a number of different words comprised in all second training sentences of the plurality of second training sentences in the second language can be similar (e.g., identical or within a predetermined threshold difference). A perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the first language with respect to a plurality of first test sentences in the first language and a perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the second language with respect to a plurality of second test sentences in the second language and parallel to the plurality of first test sentences can be similar (e.g., identical or within a predetermined threshold difference).

In some embodiments, the plurality of first training sentences and the plurality of first test sentences can be different. The plurality of second training sentences and the plurality of second test sentences can be different. The plurality of first training sentences can be used to train the first monolingual language model in the first language. The plurality of first test sentences can be used to determine a performance (e.g., perplexity) of the first monolingual language model in the first language. The plurality of second test sentences can be used to determine a performance (e.g., perplexity) of the first monolingual language model in the second language. The plurality of first test sentences and the plurality of second test sentences can be parallel sentences (e.g., of a parallel corpus of the first language and the second language).

In some embodiments, dual monolingual perplexity deltas can be used instead of, or in addition to, dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas for filtering noisy corpus of sentence pairs. For example, the computer system can, for each of the plurality of sentence pairs, train a second monolingual language model in the first language using the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair (e.g., REPR_(L1)+s_(L1)). The computer system can determine (a) a first delta in perplexities between (i) the first monolingual language model in the first language with respect to the plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the second monolingual language model in the first language with respect to the plurality of first training sentences. The computer system can train a second monolingual language model in the second language using the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair (e.g., REPR_(L2)+s_(L2)). The computer system can determine (b) a second delta in perplexities between (i) the first monolingual language model in the second language with respect to the plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the second monolingual language model in the second language with respect to the plurality of second training sentences. The dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas can comprise a sum of a difference between (a) the first delta in perplexities and (b) the second delta in perplexities and an average of (a) the first delta in perplexities and (b) the second delta in perplexities.

The computer system can determine a length ratio score for each sentence pair. For example, the computer system can determine a length score using a ratio of a first length of the first half of the sentence pair and a second length of the second half of the sentence pair.

The computer system can determine a language identification (ID) score for each sentence pair. For example, the computer system can determine a language identification score using a first confidence score and a second confidence score that words comprised in the first half and the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, are in the first language and the second language, respectively.

The computer system can determine a cynical data selection ranking/score for each sentence, for example, using cynical data selection (with the modification of not updating anything and the scoring done in a single pass or iteration). For example, the computer system can determine a rank score comprising a product of a first monolingual rank score and a second monolingual rank score for the first half and the second half, respectively, of the sentence pair determined using a first ranking of the first half of the sentence pair and a second ranking of the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, when selecting the first half and the second half of the sentence pair to train first language models and second language models, respectively, that model representative first sentences in the first language and second sentences in the second language, respectively.

With respect to the method 200, at block 212, the computer system can determine an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair. For example, the computer system can determine an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs as described with reference to Equation (4).

With respect to the method 200, at block 216, the computer system can select a subset or a subcorpus of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs. The computer system can select the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a first predetermined threshold of the overall score. Alternatively or additionally, the computer system can select the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a first predetermined threshold of a number of words comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. In some embodiments, one half of a sentence pair can be a sentence. In some embodiments, each half of a sentence pair can be a sentence. In some embodiments, one half of a sentence pair may not be a sentence. Each half of a sentence pair may not be a sentence. The first predetermined threshold can comprise a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. The computer system can select the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs, the first predetermined threshold of the number of different words comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs, and a second predetermined threshold of a number of different words comprised in the second halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs.

With respect to the method 200, at block 216, the computer system can perform a language processing task using the subset of sentence pairs selected. The computer system can train a language processing model (e.g., a machine translation model) using the subset of sentence pairs. The computer system can perform the language processing task using the language processing model. The language processing task can be speech recognition, machine translation, part-of-speech tagging, parsing, optical character recognition, handwriting recognition, information retrieval, or multilingual information retrieval.

Passenger, Driver, and Ridesharing Platform System Interactions

FIG. 3 illustrates an example environment for a ridesharing platform system. In the environment 300 illustrates in FIG. 3, a passenger 304 uses a passenger device 304 d (e.g., a smartphone, a tablet, or a computer) to make a trip request, via a communication network 308 (e.g., the Internet) to a ridesharing platform system 312 (such as the computing system 100 described with reference to FIG. 1). The ridesharing platform system 312 can in turn assign a driver 316 and the driver's vehicle 316 (e.g., a car, a SUV, and a truck) to fulfill the trip request. The driver 316 can receive and accept or decline the trip request using a driver device 316 d (e.g., a smartphone, a tablet, or a computer). The driver device 316 d can be a standalone device or part of the driver's vehicle 316.

During an onboarding process, the passenger 304 and the driver 316 can provide personal information to the ridesharing platform system 312. Stringent background checks can increase driver safety and passenger safety. The passenger 304 can provide the ridesharing platform system 312 with a pickup or starting location and a drop off or destination location of a trip and receive pricing information (e.g., the estimated cost of the trip) and timing information (e.g. the estimated duration of the trip). If the pricing information and timing information are acceptable to the passenger 304, the passenger 304 can make a trip request or place an order (e.g., by clicking an order button) to the ridesharing platform system 312. After receiving the trip request from the passenger 304, the ridesharing platform system 312 can decide whether to accept the trip request and assign or match the driver 316 to the passenger for the particular trip request. Declining or rejecting a trip request of a passenger determined to be likely an offender in an incident can increase driver safety. The driver 316 can proceed to and arrive at the pickup location, where the passenger 304 can enter the driver's vehicle 316 v and be transported, by the driver 316 using the vehicle 316 v, to the drop off location of the trip request or order. The passenger 304 can pay (e.g., with cash or via the ridesharing platform system 312) the driver 316 after arrival at the drop off location.

Using the passenger device 304 d, the passenger 304 can interact with the ridesharing platform system 312 and request ridesharing services. For example, the passenger 340, using the passenger device 304 d, can make a trip request to the ridesharing platform system 312. A trip request can include rider identification information, the number of passengers for the trip, a requested type of the provider (e.g., a vehicle type or service option identifier), the pickup location (e.g., a user-specified location, or a current location of the passenger device 304 d as determined using, for example, a global positioning system (GPS) receiver), and/or the destination for the trip.

The passenger device 304 d can interact with the ridesharing platform system 312 through a client application configured to interact with the ridesharing platform system 312. The client application can present information, using a user interface, received from the ridesharing platform system 312 and transmit information to the ridesharing platform system 312. The information presented on the user interface can include driver-related information, such as driver identity, driver vehicle information, driver vehicle location, and driver estimated arrival. The information presented on the user interface can include the drop off location, a route from the pickup location to the drop off location, an estimated trip duration, an estimated trip cost, and current traffic condition. The passenger device 304 d can include a location sensor, such as a global positioning system (GPS) receiver, that can determine the current location of the passenger device 304 d. The user interface presented by the client application can include the current location of the passenger device 304. The information transmitted can include a trip request, a pickup location, and a drop off location.

The ridesharing platform system 312 can allow the passenger 304 to specify parameters for the trip specified in the trip request, such as a vehicle type, a pick-up location, a trip destination, a target trip price, and/or a departure timeframe for the trip. The ridesharing platform system 312 can determine whether to accept or reject the trip request and, if so, assign or attempt to assign the driver 316 with the driver vehicle 316 v and the driver device 316 d to the passenger 304 and the passenger's trip request. For example, the ridesharing platform system 312 can receive a trip request from the passenger device 304 d, select a driver from a pool of available drivers to provide the trip, and transmit an assignment request to the selected driver's device 316 d.

The driver 316 can interact with, via the driver device 316 d, the ridesharing platform system 312 to receive an assignment request to fulfill the trip request. The driver can decide to start receiving assignment requests by going online (e.g., launching a driver application and/or providing input on the driver application to indicate that the driver is receiving assignments), and stop receiving assignment requests by going offline. The driver 316 can receive, from the ridesharing platform system 312, an assignment request to fulfill a trip request made by the passenger using the passenger device 304 d to the ridesharing platform system 312. The driver 316 can, using the driver device 316 d, accepting or reject the assignment request. By accepting the assignment request, the driver 316 and the driver's vehicle 316 v is assigned to the particular trip of the passenger 304, and is provided the passenger's pickup location and trip destination.

The driver device 316 d can interact with the ridesharing platform system 312 through a client application configured to interact with the ridesharing platform system 312. The client application can present information, using a user interface, received from the ridesharing platform system 312 (e.g., an assignment request, a pickup location, a drop off location, a route from the pickup location to the drop off location, an estimated trip duration, current traffic condition, and passenger-related information, such as passenger name and gender) and transmit information to the ridesharing platform system 312 (e.g., an acceptance of an assignment request). The driver device 316 d can include a location sensor, such as a global positioning system (GPS) receiver, that can determine the current location of the driver device 316 d. The user interface presented by the client application can include the current location of the driver device 316 and a route from the current location of the driver device 316 to the pickup location. After accepting the assignment, the driver 316, using the driver's vehicle 316 v, can proceed to the pickup location of the trip request to pick up the passenger 304.

The passenger device 304 d and the driver device 316 d can communicate with the ridesharing platform system 312 via the network 308. The network 308 can include one or more local area and wide area networks employing wired and/or wireless communication technologies (e.g., 3G, 4G, and 5G), one or more communication protocols (e.g., transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) and hypertext transport protocol (HTTP)), and one or more formats (e.g., hypertext markup language (HTML) and extensible markup language (XML).

The ridesharing platform system 312 can translate information received from the passenger device 304 d and the driver 316 d from one language (e.g., Portuguese) into another language (e.g., English). The ridesharing platform system 312 can translate information received using a machine translation model (e.g., a statistical machine translation model, or a neural machine translation model). The machine translation model can be trained using a filtered subcorpus of sentence pairs of a corpus of sentence pairs. The corpus of sentence pairs can be filtered to generate the filtered subcorpus of sentence pairs using dual monolingual cross-entropy-delta filtering.

Computer System

FIG. 4 is a block diagram that illustrates a computer system 400 upon which any of the embodiments described herein may be implemented. The computer system 400 includes a bus 402 or other communication mechanism for communicating information, one or more hardware processors 404 coupled with bus 402 for processing information. Hardware processor(s) 404 may be, for example, one or more general purpose microprocessors.

The computer system 400 also includes a main memory 406, such as a random access memory (RAM), cache and/or other dynamic storage devices, coupled to bus 402 for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor(s) 404. Main memory 406 also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor(s) 404. Such instructions, when stored in storage media accessible to processor(s) 404, render computer system 400 into a special-purpose machine that is customized to perform the operations specified in the instructions. Main memory 406 may include non-volatile media and/or volatile media. Non-volatile media may include, for example, optical or magnetic disks. Volatile media may include dynamic memory. Common forms of media may include, for example, a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, solid state drive, magnetic tape, or any other magnetic data storage medium, a CD-ROM, any other optical data storage medium, a RAM, a DRAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, NVRAM, any other memory chip or cartridge, and networked versions of the same.

The computer system 400 may implement the techniques described herein using customized hard-wired logic, one or more ASICs or FPGAs, firmware and/or program logic which in combination with the computer system causes or programs computer system 400 to be a special-purpose machine. According to one embodiment, the techniques herein are performed by computer system 400 in response to processor(s) 404 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory 406. Such instructions may be read into main memory 406 from another storage medium, such as storage device 408. Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory 406 causes processor(s) 404 to perform the process steps described herein. For example, the process/method shown in FIG. 2 and described in connection with this figure may be implemented by computer program instructions stored in main memory 406. When these instructions are executed by processor(s) 404, they may perform the steps as shown in FIG. 2 and described above. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions.

The computer system 400 also includes a communication interface 410 coupled to bus 402. Communication interface 410 provides a two-way data communication coupling to one or more network links that are connected to one or more networks. As another example, communication interface 410 may be a local area network (LAN) card to provide a data communication connection to a compatible LAN (or WAN component to communicated with a WAN). Wireless links may also be implemented.

The performance of certain of the operations may be distributed among the processors, not only residing within a single machine, but deployed across a number of machines. In some example embodiments, the processors or processor-implemented engines may be located in a single geographic location (e.g., within a home environment, an office environment, or a server farm). In other example embodiments, the processors or processor-implemented engines may be distributed across a number of geographic locations.

Certain embodiments are described herein as including logic or a number of components. Components may constitute either software components (e.g., code embodied on a machine-readable medium) or hardware components (e.g., a tangible unit capable of performing certain operations which may be configured or arranged in a certain physical manner). As used herein, for convenience, components of the computing system 102 may be described as performing or configured for performing an operation, when the components may comprise instructions which may program or configure the computing system 102 to perform the operation.

While examples and features of disclosed principles are described herein, modifications, adaptations, and other implementations are possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosed embodiments. Also, the words “comprising,” “having,” “containing,” and “including,” and other similar forms are intended to be equivalent in meaning and be open ended in that an item or items following any one of these words is not meant to be an exhaustive listing of such item or items, or meant to be limited to the listed item or items. It must also be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

The embodiments illustrated herein are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the teachings disclosed. Other embodiments may be used and derived therefrom, such that structural and logical substitutions and changes may be made without departing from the scope of this disclosure. The Detailed Description, therefore, is not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of various embodiments is defined by the appended claims, along with the full range of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium for filtering sentence pairs in two languages, the storage medium storing instructions, when executed by one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform operations comprising: receiving a corpus of sentence pairs, wherein a first half and a second half of each of the corpus of sentence pairs are associated with a first label of a first language and a second label of a second language, respectively; determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using: dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of (i) the first half of the sentence pair, with respect to a plurality of first training sentences, according to a first monolingual language model of the first language and a second monolingual language model of the first language and (ii) the second half of the sentence pair, with respect to a plurality of second training sentences, according to a first monolingual language model of the second language and a second monolingual language model of the second language, and a first monolingual rank score for the first half of the sentence pair determined using a first ranking of the first half of the sentence pair when selecting the sentence pair to train a first language model that models representative first sentences in the first language, and a second monolingual rank score for the second half of the sentence pair determined using a second ranking of the second half of the sentence pair when selecting the sentence pair to train a second language model, corresponding to the first language model, that models representative second sentences in the second language; determining an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair; selecting a subcorpus of sentence pairs of the corpus of sentence pairs for performing a language processing task, wherein the selecting is based on the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a predetermined threshold of a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subcorpus of sentence pairs.
 2. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium of claim 1, wherein the operations further comprise: training a machine translation model using the subcorpus of sentence pairs, and wherein performing the language processing task comprises: performing the language processing task using the machine translation model.
 3. A system for filtering sentence pairs in two languages comprising: one or more processors; and a memory storing instructions that, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: receiving a plurality of sentence pairs, wherein a first half and a second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs are associated with a first label of a first language and a second label of a second language, respectively; determining a plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs according to a first monolingual language model of the first language, a second monolingual language model of the first language, a first monolingual language model of the second language, and a second monolingual language model of the second language, wherein the determining comprises: determining a dual monolingual cross-entropy delta-score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using, dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of the sentence air according to the first monolingual language model of the first language, the second monolingual language model of the first language, the first monolingual language model of the second language, and the second monolingual language model of the second language, and determining a first monolingual rank score and a second monolingual rank score for the first half and the second halt respectively, of the sentence pair determined using a first ranking of the first half of the sentence pair and a second ranking of the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, when selecting the first half and the second half of the sentence pair to train a first language model and a second language model, respectively, that model representative first sentences in the first language and second sentences in the second language, respectively; determining an overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair; and selecting a subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs for performing a language processing task using the subset of sentence pairs, wherein the selecting is based on the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs and a predetermined threshold of a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subcorpus of sentence pairs.
 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the dual monolingual cross-entropy delta-score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises an exponentiated version of the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas.
 5. The system of claim 3, wherein the memory further stores instructions, that when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs using the first monolingual language model of the first language, the second monolingual language model of the first language, the first monolingual language model of the second language, and the second monolingual language model of the second language.
 6. The system of claim 3, wherein the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas of each of the plurality of sentence pairs are related to a first informativeness of the first half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model in the first language and a second informativeness of the second half of the sentence pair with respect to the first monolingual language model in the second language.
 7. The system of claim 5, wherein determining the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas with respect to the first half and the second half of each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises: for each of the plurality of sentence pairs: determining (i) a first entropy, with respect to the first language, of a plurality of first training sentences using the first language model in the first language; determining (ii) a second entropy, with respect to the first language, of the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair using the second language model in the first language; determining (a) a first delta in entropies between (i) the first entropy, with respect to the first language and (ii) the second entropy, with respect to the first language; determining (i) a first entropy, with respect to the second language, of a plurality of second training sentences using the first language model in the second language; determining (ii) a second entropy, with respect to the second language, of the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair using the second language model in the second language; determining (b) a second delta in entropies between (i) the first entropy, with respect to the second language and (ii) the second entropy, with respect to the second language; wherein the dual monolingual cross-entropy deltas comprise a sum of the difference between (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies, and the average of (a) the first delta in entropies and (b) the second delta in entropies.
 8. The system of claim 3, wherein the memory further stores instructions, when executed by the one or more processors, cause the system to perform: approximating the first monolingual language model in the first language using a plurality of first training sentences in the first language; estimating a first delta in entropies between (i) a first entropy, with respect to the first language, of the plurality of first training sentences and (ii) the second entropy, with respect to the first language, of the plurality of first training sentences and the first half of the sentence pair, using the first monolingual language model in the first language; approximating the first monolingual language model in the second language using a plurality of second training sentences in the second language; and estimating a second delta in entropies between (i) a first entropy, with respect to the second language, of the plurality of second training sentences and (ii) the second entropy, with respect to the second language, of the plurality of second training sentences and the second half of the sentence pair, using the first monolingual language model in the second language.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein one half of a parallel corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, and wherein the other half of the parallel corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences.
 10. The system of claim 8, wherein a first monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of first training sentences, wherein a second monolingual corpus comprises the plurality of second training sentences, and wherein the first monolingual corpus and the second monolingual corpus comprise comparable amount of information and/or the plurality of first training sentences and the plurality of second training sentences comprise comparable amount of information.
 11. The system of claim 8, wherein an amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the first language and an amount of information comprised in the first monolingual language model in the second language are similar.
 12. The system of claim 8, wherein a number of different words comprised in all first training sentences of the plurality of first training sentences in the first language and a number of different words comprised in all second training sentences of the plurality of second training sentences in the second language are similar.
 13. The system of claim 8, wherein a perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the first language with respect to a plurality of first test sentences in the first language and a perplexity of the first monolingual language model in the second language with respect to a plurality of second test sentences in the second language and parallel to the plurality of first test sentences are similar.
 14. The system of claim 3, wherein determining the plurality of feature scores for each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises: determining a length score using a ratio of a first length of the first half of the sentence pair and a second length of the second half of the sentence pair; and determining a language identification score using a first confidence score and a second confidence score that words comprised in the first half and the second half of the sentence pair, respectively, are in the first language and the second language, respectively; and determining a rank score comprising a product of the first monolingual rank score and the second monolingual rank score.
 15. The system of claim 3, wherein the overall score for each of the plurality of sentence pairs comprises a product of all feature scores of the plurality of feature scores for the sentence pair.
 16. The system of claim 3, wherein the first predetermined threshold comprises a number of different words in the first language comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs.
 17. The system of claim 3, wherein selecting the subset of sentence pairs comprises: selecting the subset of sentence pairs of the plurality of sentence pairs using the overall score of each of the plurality of sentence pairs, the first predetermined threshold of the number of different words comprised in the first halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs, and a second predetermined threshold of a number of different words comprised in the second halves of all sentence pairs of the subset of sentence pairs. 